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Air Quality
Research and Education:
An International
Perspective*
(A Commentary)
By: S.V.
KRUPA
*The
author is grateful to the APS Press for the publication of an earlier version
of this article in “Air Pollution, People and Plants: An Introduction” (1997).
As
socio-political and economic conflicts continue to escalate at the global
scale, so too is the level of our awareness of the needs to conserve energy,
reduce air pollutant emissions, and protect human health and welfare (the
environment) against the adverse effects of poor air quality. However, the
traditional view of addressing one environmental issue at a time (acidic rain,
ozone, etc.) is largely intact. This compartmentalized view is primarily a
product of our inability to address the integrative processes and products of
the atmosphere as a whole and their impacts on life and material at the
surface. Clearly this limitation is due to the technical complexity and major
financial support required to conduct the needed studies. A second limitation
is the critical requisite to assemble and develop cooperation among scientists
representing many scientific disciplines. In this context, because of the
competitive nature of securing funding for research, scientists in the U.S. and
elsewhere in Europe continue to operate on a disciplinary basis, addressing
single issues such as elevated levels of CO2, O3 , UV-B
radiation or atmospheric deposition of nitrogen. Environmental issues such as
“acidic precipitation” and “tree decline” have been used to conduct numerous
fragmented research studies, ending in indecisive and/ or less than dramatic
results. In comparison, with the rise of democratic governance in many
countries previously ruled by communistic principles and the present openness
in those nations, evidence is starting to indicate that human populations may
have been exposed for years to relatively high concentrations of various toxic
chemicals in the atmosphere (complex, persistent organic pollutants, trace
metals, etc.) and through their accumulation in consumed plant products.
There are
clear examples of the adverse effects of poor air quality on human health
(e.g., particulate matter) and the environment (e.g., ozone). Conversely, at
least for the moment, there is evidence that increases in the concentrations of
certain atmospheric constituents, for example CO2, can benefit
agronomic ecosystems, when other growth regulating factors (e.g., nutrients)
are not limiting. In contrast, such elevated CO2 levels can
adversely impact fragile ecosystems such as the tussock tundra. There is also
evidence to show that elevated levels of CO2 and O3
combined can offset their respective beneficial and negative effects on plants.
Such outcomes are not at all understood when other growth regulating factors
are considered. Thus, there is a need for a holistic understanding of the
complex and dynamic interactions between the multiple factors of the real world
and sensitive subjects responsive to poor air quality. It is important to
realize that simply because many of us look for the simplest answer to complex
real world problems, it does not necessarily mean nature must cooperate.
Because of this, as long as we approach integrative environmental problems with
tunnel vision, we will continue to state the frequent conclusion “more research
is needed” to understand the problem and the corresponding solution. This
highlights the conflict between those who believe in, “wait and see, because we
need more data” and those who believe in, “why wait until a measurable human
health or environmental impact occurs; control the potential cause now”.
Cost-benefit tradeoffs represent a critical underpinning in this controversy.
Mitigation:
Mitigation has been the most frequently used approach after the fact, to
improve air quality. In general this approach is very costly from an economic
perspective and thus, cost-benefit tradeoffs have played a major role. Air
pollutant emission control technology and their application have essentially
been the result of environmental laws or legislation, themselves a consequence
of scientific and/or public pressure. At the present time emission controls are
largely in use in developed countries. Developing nations have not readily
embraced this view due to the significant population growth in those countries,
poor standards of living and economic pressure.
Although at
the present time developed countries like the USA are the largest emitters of
chemical constituents such as CO2 on a per capita basis, future
environmental laws may restrict such emissions through mitigation. In contrast,
as we move forward in the 21st century, developing nations may assume the role
as major emitters of air pollutants. An example in question is the increasing
ozone problem in the Valley of Mexico over the last two decades and the
converse decline in ozone in the Los Angeles area over the same period.
Similarly, in my presentation at ICPEP (International Conference on Plants and
Environmental Pollution)-2, Lucknow, India (2002), I showed satellite radiation
(light) reflectance imagery from NASA (National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, US) demonstrating smog over the entire northeast India. There
are many other comparable examples.
Adaptation:
Improvement of air quality through adaptation to modified lifestyles is in
general an approach practical to developed nations, but has not always been
successful. A prerequisite to the strategy of adaptation is “environmental
literacy”. While mitigation involves a specific source or sources,
adaptation requires entire societies to change lifestyles. For example, using
more energy efficient lamps and indoor climate control systems across all
individual homes, businesses, etc., would reduce energy demand and thus, lessen
power production. Adaptation can only be effective if the required change is
practiced across the board. Public respond to monitory incentives and in the
US, energy industry has attempted to use such an approach to attract public
attention. In contrast, as with mitigation, due to economic pressures and
environmental illiteracy, adaptation has not been successfully tested in
developing countries. In many urban centers in developed nations, significant
progress is underway to deploy mass transit systems. Such systems are
prohibitively expensive for developing nations, particularly if the
infrastructure is unsuitable. Most importantly, a problematic approach is
practiced in developing countries, where for example, automobiles from the
1950s and the 1960s (use leaded gasoline) are still in operation through
continued repair of essential mechanical parts. This is a reality. Most
disconcertingly, there is a similar, but sophisticated problem in the US. Use
of Sport Utility Vehicles (SUVs) by the public is on an exponential rise. At
the moment these vehicles are classified as trucks and thus do not have to
conform to the emission standards of a sedan. By their size alone and standing
high above the road, they are not only a hazard to people driving traditional
automobiles like myself, they also emit 7% more CO2 than a regular
car. There has been little, if any effort in the US to educate the public
regarding this problem, likely because of the profitability of the private
sector. However, because of increasing backlash about traffic safety, now the
manufacturers have expressed intent to lower the height of those (new)
vehicles, but not necessarily their emissions, although regulatory pressure is
mounting as in California.
Prevention:
Prevention is better than cure. Particularly in the U.S., “pollution
prevention”
has been the theme of the 1990s. Pollution prevention requires changes in
process technology. A simple example involves brick manufacturing. Conventional
production of “bright red” brick can result in the emission of gaseous, toxic
hydrogen fluoride gas. The manufacturing of “whitish-pink” bricks that contain
high levels of calcium or an alkali would essentially absorb the hydrogen
fluoride, although the color or the salability of such bricks has not gained
public acceptance. However, resolving one type of problem can contribute to
another environmental issue of concern. Use of oxygenated fuels (e.g., ethanol
mixed with gasoline) would lead to more complete fuel combustion and thus,
reduced carbon monoxide (toxic to humans and animals), but increased carbon
dioxide (a greenhouse or global warming gas) emissions from automobiles. These
types of contradictory phenomena can cause difficulties in the strategies
applied in “pollution prevention”. Yet, significant and successful progress has
been made in implementing “pollution prevention”, particularly in the chemical
manufacturing industry. Because of the types of complexities described as
examples, pollution prevention not only requires significant advances in
production technology, but also vast economic resources in making the needed
changes. Again, these considerations limit its global scale applicability at
the present time.
POOR AIR
QUALITY AND HUMAN HEALTH
In the past
there have been disastrous air quality episodes and human mortality (e.g. the
London fog, 1952; Bhopal, India, 1984). Such examples have been somewhat rare
but not absent in the recent times. Nevertheless, the chronic effects of poor
urban air quality on human health continue to be a major issue as our knowledge
of the subject grows. Photochemical smog, toxic metals and organic pollutants
occupy a central theme. While Los Angeles smog prevails, urban pollution
(including smog, particulate matter and lead emissions from mobile sources) has
reached critical levels at locations such as Manila in the Philippines. Some
30% of the citizens of Manila are known to suffer from bronchial problems and
asthma and blood levels of lead that are disconcertingly high. Recent evidence
suggests that PM (particulate matter).10 (less than 10 µm size) levels above 42
g per m3 can be related to increased human mortality. Problems similar to
Manila most likely occur in other urban centers in the developing nations, but
remain inadequately studied. The control of particulate matter from stationary
sources, use of catalytic converters and unleaded gasoline in automobiles and
efforts to implement effective mass transit systems in the urban centers of
developed nations have provided some relief to those locations. Such strategies
require stringent environmental laws, economic resources, environmental
literacy and societal adaptation. These represent critical limiting factors in
their successful application in developing nations at the present time.
GLOBAL
CLIMATE CHANGE VERSUS GLOBAL CHANGE
Particularly over the last decade outstanding progress has been made in our
understanding of the sources and sinks of chemical constituents in the
atmosphere. Although many uncertainties remain, the traditional separatist view
of the physical and chemical climatology is rapidly merging. Some atmospheric
constituents such as methane have significant contributions from natural
sources, while others such as the chlorofluorocarbons are totally a consequence
of human activities. Future increases in the concentrations of these and other
radiative or greenhouse trace gases are predicted to result in global warming.
Although
the issue of how much warming will occur, by when and where is a highly
controversial subject, increases in the concentrations of many of the
atmospheric chemical constituents alone, their possible role in the destruction
of the beneficial stratospheric ozone layer, consequent potential increases in
the deleterious ultraviolet-B radiation at the surface, are all factors in
“global climate change”. In as much as human activity is known to be the major
driving factor for the predicted “global climate change”, such a change will
affect our lifestyles in the future and thus, our impact on climate. Thus,
there is a bi-directional feedback between the so-called “global climate
change” and the society. Therefore, it is more appropriate to view the overall
issue as “global change” rather than “global climate change”. Future
reductions that are needed in population size are a critical component of
global change. World food supply and demand will be a critical determinant in
that context.
SURPLUS
VERSUS DEFICIT FOOD SUPPLY
At the
present time in the U.S., there is a surplus of food supply (total area of
crops harvested [ha] per capita during 2001, US = 0.48; India = 0.19 and the
world = 0.21), although such a supply is not distributed uniformly across all
sectors of the population due to political and societal reasons. In contrast,
although much progress has been made in agricultural production in developing
countries, continued population growth, socio-political conflicts and
inefficient or corrupt distribution systems have contributed to a lack of
uniform food supply across all sectors in those countries. Thus, starvation is
rampant in some parts of the world, as in some African nations. It is expected
that the situation will be clearly affected further under global climate
change. Continued increases in the atmospheric concentrations of CO2
alone will require increased nutrient supply to sustain crop production and
quality. For example, under that scenario, phosphate fertilizer is already
considered to be a limiting factor in some parts of Africa. Similarly, resource
demand as a whole for crop production is expected to increase and this again,
most likely will affect food production in developing countries. Elevated
atmospheric CO2 levels coupled with any increases in air temperature
and other growth regulating factors is bound to alter the incidence of plant
disease and insect pests. We have very little knowledge of these processes. If
climatic changes occur slowly, plant breeders most likely can compensate for
it. However, as accelerated plant breeding continues, genetic diversity
relative to the wild species or type will be progressively compressed, to a
point where the magnitude of success may gradually decline (law of diminishing
returns). This simply means, certain crops grown in certain geographic areas
may have to be replaced by others. For example, the corn-belt in the U.S. being
replaced by grain sorghum, possibly due to increased air temperature and
limitation of soil moisture.
The overall
prediction is that developed nations will have to adjust and increase their
food production in the future to compensate for any corresponding decline and
increasing demand in the developing countries. In that context, a controversial
aspect is the development and deployment of genetically modified organisms that
has not gained global acceptance for a variety of reasons.
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
Although
over decades ecologists have raised significant concerns about the declines in
the populations of certain flora and fauna, air quality and global climate
change have provided another dimension to the issue. Dramatic shifts in
biological diversity have frequently been a product of direct human
intervention (e.g., continued deforestation of the Amazon and the rain forests
in Guatemala). Excessive atmospheric inputs of nitrogen (mainly as ammonia
(-um) have resulted in the invasion and overgrowth of the Heather moors by tall
grass, in the Netherlands. There is also evidence that forest ecosystems in N.
America and Europe are suffering from nitrogen saturation due to excess
atmospheric deposition, with adverse ecological consequences. Similarly, future
increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations most likely could result
in shifts in competition between C3 and C4 plants in mixed communities. Such
shifts will alter the composition of native ecosystems and reduce biological
diversity (both producers and consumers). In essence some species may disappear
completely. Since there are feedbacks between various components in an
ecosystem, loss of biodiversity will lead to altered ecosystems. The Endangered
Species Act in the U.S. and similar laws in other nations protect flora and
fauna against direct human abuse. However, such laws on occasions more often
than desirable, lead to conflicts within and between nations when they involve
cultural and economic questions or differences in philosophy relative to
environmental issues.
ENVIRONMENTAL LITERACY
Environmental literacy requires a unique combination of knowing unbiased
scientific facts and using them in a rational manner. Here, a little knowledge
can be more dangerous than no knowledge. Although scientists contribute to the
knowledge base in a technical sense, the media bring such information to
attention for public and political response. Environmental, including air
quality, issues frequently stimulate emotions, which can be difficult to
separate from scientific facts, because of the rightful public concern for
human health and welfare. Here, risk perception and the actual risk can be very
difficult to separate. Even when the two phenomena are separated, public
acceptance of the facts could fail, if emotions outweigh science. In some
societies, industry sponsored research may not receive public acceptance,
because of a historical distrust for such information, even if it is correct.
Traditionally many profit-driven industries have sponsored defensive or
reactive rather than proactive research. That has been one of the reasons for
public distrust in such research. There needs to be a concerted effort to
develop significant mutually beneficial collaboration among institutions in the
public and private sectors.
In
contrast, environmental literacy in the developing nations is directly
correlated to lifestyles and a basic lack of education. Here, population
growth, illiteracy, economics, poor food supply and need for decent shelter
outweigh environmental concerns. In addition to the abuse of available natural
sources, uncontrolled use of chemicals and poor industrial technology and
operation are critical concerns. Although mitigation through political pressure
and economic and technology transfer are possible in these cases, adaptation
that requires environmental literacy is not expected to totally succeed at the
present time in those cases.
A
completely different analysis is needed for those countries that have changed
from socialistic to democratic governance. Here, the required science is
available, at least in theory, but the pressures of economics and the
adaptation to market-driven lifestyles are retarding factors. Another limiting
aspect is the lack of full knowledge of subtle, but complex air quality issues
(e.g., toxic chemicals), since air pollutant emissions have occurred in these
countries unabated over decades and their ambient concentrations have not
always been monitored in a scientifically defensible fashion.
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
International cooperation does not necessarily mean sharing wealth, although
some developing countries have used this as a prerequisite for improving
environmental conservation. While this may be partly true, global environmental
conservation requires sharing of knowledge through education, technology
transfer and on site remediation. It is important to note that in general, many
developing nations have highly reputable and competent scientists. These
individuals simply need opportunities and resources to apply their science and
more importantly, peers to communicate with, on the scene. There is nothing
better than local solutions to local problems, since these have a better chance
of succeeding through local social acceptance. Personally, such experiences
have been some of the most rewarding aspects of my career over the last three
decades.
There are a
number of international agencies striving to deal with global scale
environmental problems. They include: (a) The World Bank; (b) The United
Nations Environmental Program; (c) The United Nations Food and Agricultural
Organization; (d) The World Health Organization; and (e) various international
institutions, such as the Commission of the European Communities, the
Rockefeller Foundation, and the U.S. Agency for International Development.
There are many other similar organizations.
A
disturbing fact, however, is the recent shifts in aid from developing countries
to others.
Such
changes are driven by short-term socio-political considerations. Nevertheless,
in the long-term sharing of knowledge and education are sustainable commodities
and that is where academic professionals can have a critical role at the global
scale. For example, in as much as the “Peace Corps” in the U.S. and similar
programs elsewhere have contributed significantly to humanity across the world
over decades, there is a clear need for a similar program(s) of environmental
conservation. In this case it would require participation of environmental
scientists from many nations and economic support from such nations.
At the
present time mitigation or on site remediation is largely in the domain of the
private sector in developed nations. Such efforts need to be coupled with
improving environmental literacy. An ideal approach to achieving optimal
success will require cooperation between the academic community and private
sector. There is much room for improvement. In some countries such as Canada,
governmental sponsorships of environmental research are greatly improved if
academic communities can demonstrate cooperation with the private sector and
potential economic or societal benefits to be obtained through technology
transfer. We clearly need more of those types of considerations.
THE
LIMITATIONS?
Air quality
as well as climate change issues are embedded in the conflict between
environment and development. Many of the as yet unresolved global problems such
as population explosion, underdevelopment, poverty and hunger are currently
escalating, a phenomenon also reflected by increasing environmental
destruction.
About 80%
of global energy-related emissions of radiatively active trace gases is
currently caused by 15% of the world population. Energy consumption in the
industrialized nations of the North has reached an all time high. The per
capita energy consumption in the developing countries is a fraction (between
about 1/10 and 1/40) of what is used in the industrialized nations. It is
foreseeable in the future, the developing countries (as they follow the
industrialization path of the developed nations) will play a much greater role
with regard to the change in our air quality and climate. Such impact of the
developing countries on the chemical and physical climate would be due to more
than just industrialization. The destruction of the environment in these
countries (e.g., tropical deforestation and the conversion of deforested areas
into farmland) is due to poverty. Furthermore, since there are no other
affordable fuels and no working energy supply systems, forests are cut down in
order to obtain firewood as a free and essential source of energy. The
situation is dramatically aggravated by the population explosion currently
observed in these countries. As a result, the environmental resources will
increasingly be overused.
Scientific
and technological progress in the industrialized nations tends to accentuate
economic differences between the rich and poor countries, and it tends to make
it more difficult to introduce technological innovations into economically
deprived nations. The position of developing countries in world trade is
relatively weak. World market prices for their commodities are rather low.
Their poverty level continues to increase due to high foreign debt, decreasing
foreign investment in the essential sectors within the developing countries,
and a substantial net capital outflow from the poor to the rich countries. The
gap between the North and much of the South is becoming wider and unless
developing countries are given a fair chance to improve their economic status,
it will be impossible to stop the destruction of natural resources such as the
tropical rain forests.
If air
quality and climate are to be preserved, it will be necessary for
industrialized nations to reduce their disproportionately high pollution of the
environment and for developing countries to overcome their socio-economic
problems in an ecologically sustainable manner by achieving their own
development, in keeping with their prevalent traditions and the conditions.
Many of us forget that local traditions are very critical in our understanding
of people at the regional and global scales.
In their
justified desire to satisfy the basic needs of their population and to close
the prosperity gap between the industrialized nations and the developing
countries, the latter have so far mainly been guided by the economic systems of
the industrialized nations which have already led to the global
over-utilization of resources. Therefore, future international cooperation
should consider the described and related limitations in designing
environmental programs, and coordinating scientific collaboration and
technology transfer.
Prof.
S.V. Krupa is the Professor of Plant Pathology at the University of Minnesota,
Twin City Campus, St. Paul, Minnesota, U.S.A. He is Life Member and an Advisor
of International Society of Environmental Botanists, Lucknow. |
